Is Privacy In The 21st Century Possible? Essay

Privacy was once valued and protected. But now with so many new and convenient technological advancements, is privacy in the 21st century possible? To protect our privacy Congress created the Electronics Privacy Acts (ECPA) to protect us from government access to private information that is transmitted and stored on the Internet, such as emails, private photos, or corporate data. Congress has not updated the ECPA on technology since it was created, in 1986. When the ECPA was created there was no â€Å"World Wide Web†, social networking was something in the future, and nothing was stored in what we call the â€Å"cloud.† With all the technological changes in today’s society no one is protected. Privacy is defined as being free from the public eye. Yet we have so many people sharing personal information on social networking websites, and government agencies monitoring emails, and phone calls most of the time without our knowledge. There is no privacy in the 21st century, it is just a nostalgic feeling, and it is no longer practiced. Today’s privacy laws aren’t up to date with today’s technology. Things are rarely sent through the mail, and emails and text messages have replaced written communication. Online messaging and social networking was something of a novelty when lawmakers created the ECPA (Frolik, 2013). A recent article from the Dayton Daily news written by Cornelius Frolik on June 2013 he mentioned, â€Å"The Government can easily access many personal communications and other private information without sufficient probable cause†. Instead of acquiring a warrant that requires more standards and procedures. Government agencies instead obtain subpoena’s to obtain people’s emails, and telephone records (Frolik, 2013). Although, local authorities catch lots of dangerous criminals through information online like emails, photos, and social media sites like Facebook some critics still feel it is an invasion of privacy. Also as our technology advances by leaps, and bounds so does the way Government uses new high tech tools to surveillance law-abiding citizens. Though our Fourth Amendment states to protect the American people from unreasonable searches and seizures. Almost everything is done through  technology in the 21st century. This meaning that government can seize any emails that are 180 days or that has been opened without a warrant; subpoenas have become the most used investigator tool for Government agencies. The reason why is because they can be easily written inside the prosecutors office without any further review from a judge. This means there is an exception to the Fourth Amendment of the United States Constitution, if it satisfies the requirements. The question we should be asking when it comes to Government and our privacy are † Is to explain a clear understanding of the word privacy†? If the Government cannot clarify the term privacy then how can they protect our privacy? The lack of clarity makes it hard for lawmakers to create new policies that will keep our privacy out of harm (Libin, 2012). Two reasons why privacy can be considered threaten in today’s society one being the Government powers are limitless, and two being we the American people expose ourselves digitally (Libin, 2012). The people of America should come together and declare for the Government to protect our privacy rather than participate in warrantless searches (Libin, 2012). The fact that the Government can argue that the Fourth Amendment does not apply because there is no exception to privacy when it comes to prot ecting national security, then that leave the American people in times of calamity, and crisis. Laws like the ECPA is a law that the Government has an obligation to respect (Libin, 2012). The ECPA protect the privacy of the electronic communications, but when law enforcement and prosecutors have to protect and enforce laws, personal information has to be collected to build a case (Libin, 2012). The solution is more complex than simply, and right now the Government is facing difficulties figuring out the best way to protect the American people (Libin, 2012). Given all the information privacy seems to be the problem. It can be portrayed in many ways, one as it’s protecting the public from terrorism, and local crime; and two being if you are innocent, what do you have to hide? In 2014 I find that most American people store their digital lives in what we call â€Å"The Cloud† which included emails, calendar data, photos, and other sensitive information. The ECPA has become obsolete. Technology today leaves the ECPA outdated, the laws have not changed since it was originally created  in 1986. The existing privacy laws only focus on the text-based personal records, and the issues that people face today with this outdated privacy law is gathering of digital multi-media files, and the way this unauthorized data is used (Lipton, 2010). Do you consider video surveillance systems out on the street personal data? Some may say yes and some may say no. According to a case study researched by Jacqueline D. Lipton, if the face of an individual is recognizable, than it is considered personal data. Some people feel protected with the video surveillance capturing their every moment. Then on the other hand some people feel they are being scrutinized being watched by video surveillance. The U.S. has a protection for free speech and for free of a press under the First Amendment. However there is no express constitutional right to privacy (Lipton, 2012). The question that American people should rigorously examine is whether or not Congress should repeal the ECPA and creates new privacy laws to replace it (Kerr, 2014). The ECPA should be considered top priority when it comes to being reformed. If Congress were to start fresh on what changes to make on the ECPA the technologic changes would have to be particularly considered. Being that the cost of stored information has changed it also changes how law enforcements surveillance people, it threatens privacy. In 1986 this all made sense because the internet was designed at this time to only hold limited storage, and wire-tapping was a threat more than stored information (Kerr, 2014). Overall access to stored record has become the greatest privacy threat. Technology has changed enormously, now everything is stored. With everything being stored now in what we call â€Å"The Cloud† like mentioned before stored information begins to reveal the same level of details as real time surveillance or real-time access (Kerr, 2014). Stored information has become more revealing an invasive. (Kerr, 2014). References _Cohen, J. E. (2013). What is Privacy For._ Harvard Law Review Association_,_ 126_(7), 1904,29. Retrieved from http://eds.b.ebscohost.com.proxy-library.ashford.edu/eds/detail/detail?vid=5& sid=34a7b883-e7a4-45d2-aff3-a25b4e535c3e%40sessionmgr110&hid=107&bdata=JnNpdGU9ZWRzLWxpdmU%3d#db=edsgbe&AN=edsgcl.333333595_ _Kerr, 0. S. (2014). The Next Generation Communications Privacy Act._ University of Pennsylvania Law Review_,_ 162_(2), 373-419. Retrieved from http://eds.b.ebscohost.com.proxy-library.ashford.edu/eds/command/detail?vid=26&sid=34a7b883-e7a4-45d2-aff3-a25b4e535c3e%40sessionmgr110&hid=107&bdata=JnNpdGU9ZWRzLWxpdmU%3d#db=aph&AN=93917886_ _Libn, N. (2012). PRIVACY AND ACCOUNTABILITY IN THE 21ST CENTURY: Foreword._ Harvard Law and Policy Review_,_ 6_, 263. Retrieved from http://eds.b.ebscohost.com.proxy-library.ashford.edu/eds/detail/detail?vid=15&sid=34a7b883-e7a4-45d2-aff3-a25b4e535c3e%40sessionmgr110&hid=107&bdata=JnNpdGU9ZWRzLWxpdmU%3d#db=edslex&AN=edslex2F0EC940_ _Lipton, J. D. (2010). Digitlal Multi-Media and The Limits of Privacy Law._ Case Western Reserve Journal of International Law_,_ 42_(3), 551-571. Retrieved from http://eds.b.ebscohost.com.proxy-library.ashford.edu/eds/detail/detail?vid=24&sid=34a7b883-e7a4-45d2-aff3-a25b4e535c3e%40sessionmgr110&hid=107&bdata=JnNpdGU9ZWRzLWxpdmU%3d#db=bsh&AN=51909959_ _Sutanto, J., Palme, E., Chuan-Hoo, T., & Chee Wei, P. (2013). Addressing The Personalization-Privacy Paradox: An Empirical Assessment From a Field Experiment on Smartphone Users._ MIS Quarterly_,_ 37_(4), 1141-A5. Retrieved from http://eds.b.ebscohost.com.proxy-library.ashford.edu/eds/detail/detail?vid=29&sid=34a7b883-e7a4-45d2-aff3-a25b4e535c3e%40sessionmgr110&hid=107&bdata=JnNpdGU9ZWRzLWxpdmU%3d#db=bsh&AN=91906295_

Finagle a Bagel Marketing Essay Example

Finagle a Bagel Marketing Essay Example Finagle a Bagel Marketing Paper Finagle a Bagel Marketing Paper A Bagel uses all the variables of the marketing mix which Include product, price, distribution and promotion to support their company that makes between 20 and 25 million dollars a year. Promotion. The promotion element of the marketing mix Is creatively organized to make customers aware of new Items Finagle A Bagel might decide to put on their menu. One way in which they have promoted their sandwiches in the past is by running directly up to cars that have stopped at an intersection and handed them Alfa of a sandwich with a coupon to come back for another. That certainly led to word-of-mouth referrals to increase their sales. The above examples are just a few elements of each part of the marketing mix that Finagle A Bagel uses. The forces that Impact Finagle A Bagel Include competitive, economic, political, legal and regulatory, technological, and coloratura forces. (Pride, 2007) Another way they keep original Is by having music for kids In some of their stores. Their hope is that kids will tell their parents that they want to go where the music is. They need to be original to keep up with their competition. Economic Force. Economic forces impact Finagle A Bagel as customers need to have a willingness to spend. They expect to be satisfied when buying their bagels or other fresh food products. Although discretionary income is used to buy basic necessities, eating out of the home could almost be considered entertainment as it is usually more expensive to eat at a restaurant as opposed to buying items at a grocery store and preparing meals at home. If customers are on a fixed budget due to employment or dillydally, the impact It has on Finagle A Bagel could be negative as customers wont be spending as much, If at all. : However, If a customer has an excess of disposable income, it could have a positive impact as sales could increase for Finagle A Bagel. Political Force. If there are legislative regulations that will affect a corporation, this could impact Finagle A Bagel if they need to hire lobbyists to communicate their needs and concerns to the elected officials. Legal and Regulatory Forces. The FTC assists businesses In complying with laws, and t evaluates new marketing methods every year. It also allocates considerable resources to curbing false advertising, misleading pricing, and deceptive packaging and labeling. (Book 2007) For Instance, If Finagle A Bagel created a bagel and advertised It as a bagel that Is guaranteed to enhance weight loss to buyers and had advertised that the bagel had been approved by the Food and Drug Administration Ana provoking retailers Walt acceptable marketing materials, tens could negatively impact their business if such marketing efforts were giving false information. Coloratura Force.

How to Check on the Status of Your Tax Refund in Canada

How to Check on the Status of Your Tax Refund in Canada The Canada Revenue Agency (CRA) does not start processing Canadian income tax returns until the middle of February. No matter how early you file your income tax return, you will not be able to get information on the status of an income tax refund until the middle of March. You should also wait until at least four weeks after you file your return before checking on the status of an income tax refund. If you file your return after April 15, you should wait at least six weeks before checking on the status of your return. Processing Times for Tax Refunds The length of time it takes the CRA to process your income tax return and refund depends on how and when you file your return. Processing Times for Paper Returns Paper returns usually take four to six weeks to process.For paper tax returns filed before April 15, wait four weeks before you check on your refund.For paper tax returns filed on or after April 15, wait six weeks before you check on your refund. Processing Times for Electronic Returns Electronic (NETFILE or EFILE) returns can take as little as eight  business days to be processed. However, you should still wait at least four weeks before you check on your refund. Tax Returns Selected for Review Some income tax returns, both paper and electronic, are selected for more detailed tax return reviews by the CRA before they are assessed, as well as afterward. The CRA may ask you to submit documentation to verify claims you submitted. This is not a tax audit, rather it is part of CRA efforts to identify and clarify common areas of misunderstanding in the Canadian tax system. If your tax return is selected for a review, it will slow down the assessment and any refund. Information Required to Check on Your Tax Refund To check on the status of your income tax refund you need to provide the following information: Your Social Insurance NumberThe month and year of your birthThe amount entered as Total Income on line 150 of your income tax return for the previous year. How to Check on Your Tax Refund Online You can check on the status of your income tax return and refund using the My Account tax service, which you can register for using your existing online banking information or by creating a CRA user ID and password. You will be mailed a security code within five to 10 days, but you dont need it to access some limited service options. (The security code has an expiry date, so it is a good idea to use it when it arrives, so you wont have to go through the process again when you want to use My Account for another service.) To access My Account, you will need to provide: Your Social Insurance NumberYour date of birthYour postal code or ZIP code, as appropriateThe amount you entered on your income tax return from either the current tax year or the one before. Have both handy. How to Check on Your Tax Refund by Phone You can use the automated Telerefund service on the Tax Information Phone Service (TIPS) to find out if your return has been processed and when to expect your refund cheque. The TIPS phone number is: 1-800-267-6999The Telerefund service is also available at: 1-800-959-1956

Introduction to Microeconomics Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words - 1

Introduction to Microeconomics - Essay Example Although, the shift in demand can raise the quantity of food at any given prices, due to the present level of food supply, food prices would have to rise to let this ever-increasing food demand ‘make-up’ with the given supply-level. This making-up of food demand with supply describes upward (leftward) movement along the shifted (new ­) demand curve, raising the equilibrium food prices. Thus, equilibrium food quantity and prices are expected to rise, however, due to the upward movement along new demand curve, the increase in price would keep this increased equilibrium quantity lesser than the shift in demand. But what’s worsening the scenario is leftward shift in food supply which main determinants are unfavorable, volatile weather consequences including droughts, freezes, and floods in the main food producing and exporting countries: China, Russia, Australia, and Mexico. These unpleasant weather conditions have badly affected the crops and other productive resou rces, alarming the food production capacity in these countries. Other harmful environmental changes i.e. global warming can further shift the food supply leftward.

Issue Invention Handout (Formulating an Issue) Assignment

Issue Invention Handout (Formulating an Issue) - Assignment Example Red is love, but also Chinese nationalism and the society in which the word is used can influence which meanings are intended. This was about method : both the way that Chinese people use English in their own way, but also there was an element of perception in how they view the mistakes that occur as something to be ashamed of rather than something funny. I wanted to show how technology creates a link with home for international students, and how this allows them to maintain their links with family, and also form new links with other international students, particularly by sharing images of family members. This is a kind of dual discourse and is very important for student welfare and motivation. There seems to be a clear difference between the way the university communicates with its international students on printed brochures – the language is more imperative and less â€Å"open† than it is in the brochures for other students. There seems to be a clear difference between the way the university communicates with its international students on printed brochures – the language is more imperative and less â€Å"inviting† than it is in the brochures for other

Resistance and containment as described in the song The Revolution Essay

Resistance and containment as described in the song The Revolution Will Not be Televised - Essay Example Scott-Heron underlines that a controlled or structured media can never demonstrate the waves of social, political and cultural changes of a nation. The entire song reveals the idea that The Black revolution would be down in the grooves and on the lanes. The whites always regarded the blacks as downtrodden and denied them the necessities of life. Though most of the black leaders had protested against this injustice, they were either silenced by jails or bullets. Blacks used Popular Music as the manifestation of their suppressed feelings and Scott- Heron’s song ‘The Revolution Will Not be Televised’ deserves significance in this respect. Through this widely accepted song, Scott-Heron could rouse the innate feelings of the blacks and the very first stanza of the song makes this grim reality vivid. Readers get a clear picture of the social set up existed with many ‘don’ts’ at the time of the composition of this song. As the blacks ‘will not b e able to’ perform what they desired, they realise the reality that their revolution for attaining racial equality will remain as an oasis. Any one can feel a note of sadness and can experience the dejected state of mind of the blacks in the song; on the other hand, the song has also the power to raise one’s thoughts to a higher level of aesthetic appreciation. As a spokesman of black community, Scott-Heron, like other black writers, portrays the ill-treatment they suffer at the hands of the dominant white community. The very first line of the song grabs one’s attention as one can see the pathetic state of blacks being denied of their own houses. However, there is a struggle to endure the sufferings and by portraying the endurance of the blacks, Scott-Heron in a way is advocating that liberation is constantly countered by implicit (and explicit) forms of oppression that are not always immediately identifiable (Jackson). Scott-Heron uses a lot

Identify and fully describe the main developments Essay Example for Free

Identify and fully describe the main developments Essay 1. Identify and fully describe the main developments of Operating Systems, giving examples of their origins and use. Batch Operating Systems were an early operating system available, and were first introduced in the mid 50s. They were designed to make human manual work easier; humans were replicating identical jobs over and over again, hence in batch. A batch operating system keeps itself eventful; it does this by taking jobs from a batch queue, instead of waiting for people to submit jobs. The jobs are then processed one or more at a time under control of the operating system, however most jobs undertaken in this operating system would be single-task. These type of operating system were often left to work overnight, mainly because the jobs were batched the next job in the queue would be commenced as soon as the previous job had been completed, this way of processing would allow for a large work load to be automatically completed without the requirement to wait and tell the computer to do the next job. Real Time Operating Systems (RTOS) are often embedded, meaning a integral part of a system inside another device. They have very little user interface capability. Real time operating systems like their name implies, respond to an input immediately. Real time operating systems are capable of processing data so quickly that the results are available to influence the activity currently taking place. [Computer Science 5th Edition, CS French, Ashford Press Gosport, 1996] Real time operating systems guarantee a certain capability within a specified time constraint; these time constraints are usually very rigid. If the system does not conform to this time limit, the system ultimately fails. They are used for various purposes; a few of these are medical equipment, industrial control systems and car computers. Parallel Systems have more than one processor to carry out a single job. The systems often carry out one single job using the resources of both processors of the machine; however some systems will have a processor dedicated to a single task. These operations work in parallel (side by side) of one another. Distributed Systems act as an illusion to a user. A multiple number of nodes are set up on a network, to allow data access or device sharing. This allows for other users of different machines to access data on another machine on the network. For example at college a student logs on to the machine, the machine seems local to the user, the user observes the system as using its own local drives and devices. However these Drives and devices are setup on a client-server machine but appear to be local to the user. Time Sharing Operating Systems allow multi-tasking, the operating system shares a slice of the processor resources to designated programs and users logged on to the system. For example, it is not unusual for a home user to have a word processing package, internet browser and a multimedia package to be open at the same time. Microsoft Windows is a great example for allowing this. Personal Computer Operating Systems were brought about in the early 70s. However it wasnt until the 1980s that they became popular, and the focus of the operating system changed from the hardware aspect, to that of the user interface (how the user observes the operating system). Personal Computer Systems are simply operating systems that share the processors resources for single users tasks. The main concept behind personal computer operating systems is the user interface. The workings are important; however the main principal is that the user is entirely interactive with the system. These are perhaps the most difficult for designers to produce, as a very high level knowledge of user interface design is required. This is to allow users of any level to use the system comfortably. It allows for considerable power for a single user to run high-tech graphics and multimedia packages. These operating systems evolved in to very capable systems, allowing for heavy multi-tasking usage. Examples of Personal Computer operating systems are as follows: Microsoft Windows Linux Apple Macintosh MAC OS 2. Identify and fully describe the main purposes of an operating system. All components of the operating system are required to be covered, to clearly show an understanding of what each component does and how they fit into the overall system design. Process Management Process management is a way of tracking processes and managing them in such a way that there is enough processor resources to correctly function. Process is another word for a task that is to be performed by the computer. Along with a process is a set of information about the particular process. The information required to track these processes are stored in a data package called a Process Control Block (PCB). The process control block contains the following information about a process:   An identification number that uniquely identifies the process Owner ID An identification of the user/device who the process belongs to   Priority A number to represent its priority to the system   Status What its current state is. This is 1 of 3 states (Ready, Waiting, Running). Units of Processor Time Used   Resources waiting for for example paper for the printer.   Link to Another PCB   Registers the registers the process has contents in. Process ID 239845 Owner ID Chris. Oliver Priority 25 Status Waiting Units of Processor Time Used 264 Resource waiting for Disks [printer] Link to another PCB Next PCB in wait Queue Registers Contents of registers when process last stopped running An example of a PCB is shown below: this is for a print job A Processes state is diagrammatically shown below, this shows state transition and how it works. A process can be in one of five states; these five states are as follows: State Definition HOLD A processs state at the beginning, this is when the devices and memory allocation size is decided. READY this state is when the process has been allocated all the resources required and is ready for being operated on by the computer RUNNING This state is when the process is in the CPU WAITING This is when the process stops because of an input or output waiting to be completed. The process is removed from the processor and is allocated this state. It is given this state until the input or output is given the all clear. FINISHED This is when the process has been finished, and all the devices used by the process have been released ready for the next process. Deadlocks Deadlocks occur when a multiple number of processes fight for very little resources available from the processor. For example one process has been granted the allocation of the modem, however is waiting for a text file, but process two has the text file and is waiting for the modem. In this instance each process will not gather the resources required because they have been allocated to another process, this is where a deadlock occurs. Process Management in an operating system has the job to destroy one of the processes to allow for one of the processes to be put in the ready queue. Scheduling Scheduling is a method in the operating system that allows processes to enter the ready queue allowing them to then take execution. The strategies used to take these processes and allow them to be ready for execution are as follows:   Process the maximum amount of jobs.   Sharing out processing time equally to users   Providing acceptable response times, this is in the form of not running intensive programs while users are logged on to the system. Keeping devices as busy as possible.   Attempting to gradually freeing up of processes, instead of crashing.   Avoid Deadlocking Scheduling is comprised of three sections: 1 Long Term Scheduling this is where processes are batched together, when the resources and space are free the process is then executed. This type of scheduling is used for jobs like heavy overnight print jobs. 2 Mid-Term Scheduling this is where a decision is made as to whether the processor is to busy for the amount of processes attempting to use it, the decision can be then fixed by terminating processes. When the system is free again the process can be re-executed. 3 Short Term Scheduling is a where the next process is selected from the ready queue; it uses algorithms to do this. Shortest burst time being the time spent running before the process will have to wait before an input or output operation. Shortest remaining time is the processes that have very little time left; this inevitably allows space for another process to execute. Priority scheduling a control that allow special circumstance processes to execute through the system quickly. Round robin limits the time a process is allowed to run before it is removed, it is then placed back in the ready queue. Memory Management Memory is an area in which data and instructions are stored. These operations must be managed by an operating system in order for the system to be stable and to run fluently. Memory management within an operating system must ensure that a process has enough memory to run, ensuring it does not go in to another processes slot as this causes corruption. This management is a way of protecting memory from becoming unstable. Memory management is also responsible for using the computers other memory sources effectively, to ensure programs run smoothly and effectively. This is handled by using virtual memory; using the hard disc drive as a temporary memory source for processes and data. This can benefit the user in various ways: The user is not rigidly restricted to space available. Using a large virtual memory space provides convenience for instances where large programs etc. are required to be stored in memory. Users are using less physical memory; therefore the system can handle more users on the system. High Speed Cache is a fast memory storage; cache predicts the data that the CPU may need next, it then retrieves it from RAM and places it in to the high speed cache, this speeds up system performance, as cache is a lot faster than RAM is in providing for the processor. The operating systems task is to control an even flow of the processes and decide where they should go practically, moving processes to the best location as the scheduler asks it to do so. This scheduler knows what process is next in line therefore can tell memory it is next and to move it to a suitable location for it to be quickly accessed. Paging Paging is a method used in operating systems to make a programs memory non-contiguous, in simple terms; allowing a program to be allocated to any memory location available. This is used when a bulk of data is bigger than the memory allocation it has been given; it firstly fills the memory allocation provided, and then stores the rest of the data in any space available in memory. This method of splitting the data is known as Fragmentation. This decreases system performance. Defragmentation To enhance the performance of the memory of a secondary storage medium, the operating system runs an operation called Defragmentation. Defragmentation is a process that sorts data in to a contiguous sequence. If a non-contiguous set of data is found, it will be relocated and stored as a whole. The image above is an illustration to show pictorially how a storage device could look in a data structure. As you can see fragmented files are scattered. If this data was attempted to be retrieved it would be slower feedback to the user as the data has been fragmented and would have to be found first. If data is to be found quickly and retrieved without a problem, the diagram below shows how a data structure should pictorially look. The image shows a contiguous data structure, with no fragmented files. This is the idea state for a system to be operated under. File and Disk Management TALK ABOUT HOW MEMORY IS STORED i. e. CONTIGIOUS Blocks of data are assigned in a complete row, using this method the files are simple to access. The space must be large enough to store all the data Files may become larger, therefore the space may be too small in the future, then it will need relocating (moved) This then causes fragmentation of the storage device. , NON CONTIGIOUS Files are recognised by operating systems and worked upon by using file extensions. A file consist of two parts, one being the unique name to the user, second being the file extension related to the program that runs that type of file. The operating system recognises exactly which program to open when the file is run. The way that files and data are managed, is critical to the performance of the computer and the security of the data. File management within an operating system provides a logical way for the user to observe there data, instead of having the complication of the physical implementation. Operating systems main job in this area is to ensure that data is stored and relocated correctly, as well as having the responsibility to process files, find space to store them, and to retrieve this data at any time. For example a . PDF file when run will be recognised by the operating system to be open in Adobe Acrobat Reader, providing the program is installed on the computer. An operating system can perform several different tasks towards files, they are as follows: Operation/Task Function Create finding space for it on storage medium, a new record made in directory Write Finds the file from directory and adds data to it. Read Finds the file then puts it in to memory and a read pointer is used to track where the next read place is to take place. In most operating systems however, a write pointer is held at this point, in-case the user intends to write to the file while reading Delete finds the file, then frees all space given to it, this is then erased from the computer Files are a collection of saved information that is stored on a type of storage medium for later retrieval. File attributes are the information related to the file, just like we have information related to ourselves, i. e. telephone number and home address. A files attributes are vital in order for the operating system to create a file structure system, it does this by using the attributes to sort the files in to some kind of order. For computer data files there are a set of minimum attributes related to them, they are as follows: Attribute Name Role Name an identifier to the user, in the form of a string of characters Type the type of file it is, this is important as different operating systems handle different types of files differently. Location Information held about where the file is stored, usually in the form of a path to it. e. g. C:\Documents and Settings\Chris\Assignment. doc. Size The size of the file (in bytes) e. g. 270kb. Protection Permissions to who can access the file. I. e. Read Only Date when the file was created, modified or accessed. Author the person the file was created and saved by. Directories Directories are a hierarchical way of separating these files; directories simply make it simpler for users to relocate the file at another time. The root is the top directory of a file system; the root is determined by the operating system. The root directory is usually the bootable device on a home computer system. Commonly C: Paths are a list of directories that the operating system goes through to find a run able file. For example: C:\windows\cdplayer. exe The operating system will go in to the root and then in to the directory Windows the file named cdplayer. exe will then be located and executed. Tree Structure are of a hierarchical nature, therefore the top level is the root of the directory and every other sub directory from which all other directories stem off. A Backslash is used to separate and indicate directories within directories (sub directories) Directories allow a method for the operating system to easy locate files. Volumes are a fixed amount of storage space allocated on a device. If a hard disc drive has two partitions set up, then it is said to have two volumes because it has two separate fixed storage spaces. Formatting a device in turn means to prepare it for read and write access. It does this by wiping all drive information that has been pre-set, it then tests each sector of the disc to ensure they are reliable enough for read and writing in and out of. File Allocation Techniques FAT (File Allocation Table) 32. Located on the storage device, basically holds the relevant information in a table, to find the data on the disk. its security does not measure up to that of NTFS and its filename size constraint is poor to that of NTFS. Searches from top to bottom when looking for a file. Contains the first block of each file on the disk, Requires a tremendous amount of space NTFS (New Technology File System) Used in Windows NT based operating systems Uses a similar table to that of FAT32 to keep track of file locations Looks at directory structure from the side to help speed up the location of files Uses Link Listed Allocation. Linked allocation creates inked lists using disk sectors as nodes. For example, if the sector size is 512 bytes, and it takes a 32 bit number to represent the next block address, then only 508 bytes can be used to store data (the other 4 bytes are used to locate the next file sector). This approach eliminates external fragmentation (since even the smallest block can now be used). Some problems with this approach are that seeking within a file is now difficult. For example, if were interested in the last 100 bytes of a 100mb file, we need to traverse all the sectors of the file (follow links) to get to the last 100 bytes. Another major issue is that we need to do a disk seek with every disk sector (unless disk sectors are contiguous). And yet another issue with this is that storing pointers on every disk sector uses up a lot of disk space. UNIX Used I-Nodes an indexed file allocation method. Its fast for small blocks of data and can accommodate extremely large volumes of data RAM Disk RAM disks are a temporary storage solution, data cannot be permanently saved, and data is lost on any type of system shut off. I. e. system reboots. A Random Access Memory disk is a segment of the main memory that is left for extra storage if required. This is otherwise known as a Virtual Drive. The main use for this area is that of performing operations to files, this is a better way of performing operations as the rate at which they can be performed on are that much higher than that of a physical drive. Size constraints are a major problem with RAM disks, as they are limited to that only of the RAM contained in the machine. For example in modern home computer systems 256mb of RAM is contained, therefore only 256megabyte of RAM disc can be used. 256mb in todays computing is very little in comparison to what users require. OS Services files, copy, delete, rename, view, find, backup Directories create, rename, list, delete Programming, Open, close, read, write, seek File allocation methods, FAT 32, NTFS, UNIX, Disk caching RAM disk Defragmentation I/O System Management DMA DMA takes control of the system by imitating the processor; it does this to enable itself to transfer data to and from the memory using the system bus. Buffering is required primarily because of the slow nature of I/O Device function. It is a way of smoothing out an I/O operation, Virtual Segmentation each process is divided in to slices (segments) non-resident Caching and Spooling of Input and output devices Drivers System Components ( CPU, RAM, System Bus, Local Buses, Device Controllers, Control Registers, Devices). IO response System (polling, interrupts, I/O, DMA Kernal Layers, Purpose, Device, Drivers, System calls Device Management Device management controls hardware resources; this includes the control over selection and operation of the devices used for input, output or storage. 2. Select an appropriate type of operating system for the following ICT needs, giving the choice of current operating systems [trade names]: a) Local council office department in charge of the collection, and distribution of council tax. b) A national car-rental agency, whose main computing centre is located in Sheffield, through which all of the daily transactions for the business are conducted. c) An electro-plating circuit board manufactures. d) A travelling company representative, who uses technology to keep in touch with his office. 3. Research and identify the different operating systems currently available for desktop computers. From your research and investigations of these operating systems you must critically evaluate them. This evaluation should clearly demonstrate your understanding of the differences found including and potential disadvantages. Bibliography http://www. cse. lehigh. edu/~glennb/um/book/c10os. htm http://dragon. acadiau. ca/~dbenoit/3713/slides/pdf/Week2. 1_History. pdf http://cne. gmu. edu/itcore/processes/Time. html http://www. netnam. vn/unescocourse/os/35. htm#3. 5. 3%20Virtual%20memory%20concept http://www. cs. aue. auc. dk/~akbar/ospdfiles/wschap7. PDF Books [Computer Science 5th Edition, CS French, Ashford Press Gosport, 1996].